Nightlights, Napkins, Tablecloths and many more...!

Make your own nightlights, Napkins, Tablecloths and many more...!

Creating anything is exciting! Imagine creating things for your own house, office or even your car... You will not only entertain yourself by doing that, but you will save money as well. Not to mention that everything that you do it is going to be unique, even if you follow instructions. Just try this experience and believe me it is going to be an addiction for you. Here you will find several ideas that you might like. Try them, enjoy and good luck!

Nightlights from tin cans

Candles at the table always create an intimate atmosphere and make an unusual centrepiece. These nightlights are based on Shaker-style punched-tin lanterns.

You will need:
- Plain tin cans of varying sizes, used for fruit or vegetables (not soft drinks)
- Tracing paper
- Masking tape
- Drill with a metal bit
- Candles

1. Take the top off the can using a traditional can opener with a butterfly side handle that leaves the rim intact.
2. Cut the tracing paper to match the depth and circumference of the can. Work out the pattern on the tracing paper - keep to simple shapes that are easily identifiable, such as stars, hearts or fish.
3. Mark dots at intervals along the outline of the shapes - not too close together - and tape the tracing-paper image around the outside of the can.
4. Using a metal bit on your drill, drill holes where you have marked the dots. Be careful not to let the can or drill slip. The can may buckle under the pressure, but it is easily straightened.

Remnant napkins
Napkins are the easiest thing in the world to make. If you use leftover fabrics they can match the rest of the room. Just make sure that any fabric you use is washable.

You will need:
- 50 cm cream fabric for each napkin
- 2 m ribbon for heart napkin
- Matching thread
- Contrast fabric for heart, patchwork and appliqué napkin
- 4 m ribbon for buttonhole napkin

Heart napkin
1. Cut the napkin fabric to 50 cm square. Turn a 1.5 cm hem on to the right side of the fabric and iron to keep in place.
2. Cut four 50 cm lengths of ribbon, allowing for a 1.5 cm hem on each length. Pin the ribbon to each hemmed edge of the napkin, turning under the hem and overlapping the ribbon at each corner. Stitch the ribbon in place.
3. Trace a heart shape on to contrasting fabric. Cut it out and pin it on to the corner of the napkin. If you have a sewing machine you can satin-stitch around the edge of the heart. If you are sewing by hand, use two strands of thread together for a more substantial edge.

Patchwork napkin
1. Cut four 15 cm squares from four complementary fabrics.
2. Sew four of the squares - one of each fabric - together in a strip, with a 1 cm hem on each seam.
3. The next three strips are sewn together in the same way but each square moves along one place horizontally.
4. The four strips are then sewn together to make a square.
5. With right sides facing, sew the square to plain fabric the same size, leaving an opening to turn the napkin right sides out. Press and sew up opening.

Appliqué Napkin
For this one I used a wavy flower pattern, cutting the pattern to follow the design of the fabric. You could use any fabric with a simple pattern - maybe leftover curtain fabric.

1. Cut the napkin fabric to 50 cm sq and cut two wavy strips in contrasting fabric for the appliqué following the printed pattern.
2. Pin the appliqué fabric to the napkin fabric, keeping the design towards the centre so that it can be seen when folded. Carefully satin stitch the appliqué in contrasting thread.
3. Turn a hem on the reverse side to hide the raw edges.

Ribbon and buttonhole napkin

1. Cut the napkin to 50 cm sq and turn under and machine a narrow hem.
2. Mark out the position of the buttonholes with a pencil - one on each corner and four along each side of the napkin - so that the ribbon threads through the holes and ties in a knot at the corner.
3. Sew each buttonhole by hand or by following the instructions given with your sewing machine. The length of the buttonhole will depend on the width of the ribbon you intend to use.
4. Cut four equal pieces of ribbon, at least one and a half times the length of the napkin. Thread through the buttonholes, with two ends coming out at each corner and tie in a loose knot or a bow if the ribbon is long enough.

Pleated tablecloth for a round table

Tablecloths never seem to fit round tables properly. This pleated cloth fits perfectly and uses about two metres of fabric, depending on the size of the table. Be sure to choose contrasting complementary fabrics for the cloth and internal pleats.

You will need:
- 2 m fabric
- 50 cm contrasting fabric
- Matching thread
- Sewing machine

1. Measure the dimensions of the table top - the one I used had a 104 cm diameter and 320 cm circumference. The drop of the tablecloth is to be 20 cm.
2. Cut a circular piece of fabric for the table top, adding a 2 cm hem allowance. Cut four rectangles of the same fabric, 82 cm x 22 cm for the drop. Also cut four 22 cm squares of fabric from a contrasting fabric for the inverted pleats.
3. Join all eight pieces together alternately, giving each join a 1 cm seam.
4. With right side facing, place a pin vertically in the centre of the contrast fabric pleat and fold the border fabric in towards the pin and then back on it. Pin the fabric in place and repeat on the other side. Pin the other three pleats this way.
5. Pin and tack the border on to the circular top and sew in place.
6. Turn up a 1 cm hem and press. The cloth should fit the table exactly.

Variation:
1. To make the border, instead of cutting four rectangles of fabric, cut one strip, 15 cm by the circumference of the table, plus 1 cm seam allowance at each end.
2. Cut another strip of cream contrast fabric, 7 cm deep by the same length.
3. With right sides together, sew them horizontally with a 1 cm seam and press the seam open. Then join the two sides together with a 1 cm seam. Press this seam open. Join the border to the top fabric with a 1 cm hem.

Painted glasses

Paint glasses to match your china or decorate them for a special occasion such as a birthday or wedding. Glass paint is reasonably permanent so wash glasses by hand using a soft cloth or sponge and do not rub the design.

You will need:
- Glasses
- Pearle-scent glass paint
- Paintbrushes

1. Wash the glasses in hot soapy water and dry with a glass cloth. Remove any glue from price labels with methylated spirits.
2. Use one colour at a time or the paints will run into each other. To make the spots, dot blobs of paint and leave to dry.
3. Outline the spots in a different colour and leave to dry. Continue building up the layers of paint until you get the intensity of colour that you want. I usually give the glasses I paint four coats of paint.

Variation:
- Cut shapes from sticky-back plastic to stick on to the glass. Trace numbers from a book to encourage children to count, or cut thin strips of different colours and stick on in a continuous spiral.

Creating Paint Effects

You can create a wide range of effects by using paints and glazes. Use paint for designing patterns and deceiving the eye with colour and perspective. Use glazes for their semi-transparent quality to produce depth and translucence.

Considering Options
- Simple paint effects can have just as much impact as those involving more complex techniques. If you are a beginner, choose a simple effect that uses coloured emulsions. You can mix coloured glazes, and attempt more extravagant finishes, as you gain experience.

CHOOSING EFFECTS
Selecting methods
- There are two main methods of creating paint effects. Either a tool is dipped into paint or glaze and then applied to a wall, or a glaze is applied to a wall with a brush and a tool is pressed into the glaze. The former is an "on" technique; the latter is "off". Even if you use the same glaze and the same tool, a different finish will be achieved depending on which method you employ.

Applying a base coat
- Always apply a base coat. Light shades are best, since you can then build up colour; eggshell or emulsion are ideal.

PREPARING TO PAINT
Roughing it
- Examine all walls carefully. Rough, textured walls are ideal for sponging, which disguises defects, while smooth, dead flat walls will show stippling off to its best.
Assessing suitability
- Choose ragging or bagging rather than rag rolling on a wall that has pipe-work or switches. Rag rolling needs a constant motion, not frequent interruptions. Joins are difficult to disguise.
Getting ready
- Make sure that all materials and tools are ready for use, since once you start a wall you should finish it without interruption. If you do not, some areas will dry before others and the joins will show.

Types of Paint Effect
- Whichever paint effect you choose, make sure that you have all tools and materials to hand. Try to maintain consistent hand movements from one wall to another for an even overall finish.

Sponging on
- It is probably the easiest paint effect to create. Emulsions or glazes can be used. Natural sea sponges are the ideal tools to work with, although synthetic sponges can be substituted.
Sponging off
- A mixed glaze should be used for this effect. A sea sponge must be used since substitutes tend to smudge the finish. This is a natural progression from sponging on in terms of difficulty.
Ragging
- It involves a similar technique to that of sponging, except a crumpled, lint-free cloth is used instead of a sponge. A mixed glaze should be used for the best results.
Bagging
- It involves the same technique as ragging, except a plastic bag is used instead of a rag. This creates a more sharply defined texture compared to the fabric alternatives used in ragging.
Rag rolling
- With rag rolling, a rag is rolled down the wall to create the effect of tumbling material. It is best to rag roll off, since uniformity and consistency are difficult to achieve when applying on.
Stippling
- A stippled effect is created by pressing the bristle tips of a stippling brush into a wet glaze. The technique is only suitable for glazes, and continuity is important to prevent joins or overlaps.

Colour-washing

Colour-washing is probably the oldest paint technique. Use a large paint brush to apply a highly diluted glaze to wall surfaces. This will produce a translucent finish through which the base coat shows, creating depth and texture.

Stabilizing a wash
- A wash should have the consistency of highly diluted paint. To prevent it from running off the walls, add a small amount of PVA to the mix to help it adhere to the wall surface.
Adding depth
- Apply several coats and vary colour slightly to create a wonderful feeling of depth. Warm colours will give a glow to any room.
Choosing walls
- Apply a wash to a rough surface to create texture. The colour will clear from the peaks but build up in the troughs, creating a great textured finish.

MAKING GLAZES

A glaze is the medium for creating paint effects. It is distinguished by its ability to hold patterned impressions and long drying time that allows you to create an effect. Glazes have traditionally been oil based, but modern acrylics are popular and are often supplied ready mixed.

Colouring Glazes
- Mix colours before adding to glaze.
Mixing acrylic colours
- Use an artist's brush to mix acrylic colours. Mix the colour first on a surface such as a paint-tin lid, and make sure it is the right shade. Decant the basic glaze into an old jam jar, and add the acrylic colour to it.

Calculating Quantities

Diluting colour
- For a good acrylic-based glaze, five to ten per cent of the mixture should be colour and the rest glaze. Add the colour to the glaze and mix thoroughly. A clean jam jar is ideal for mixing small quantities of colour in this way, since you can screw the lid on tightly before shaking the colours to mix them well.
Estimating amounts
- Glazes go much further than standard paints. Dilute acrylic glazes with a small amount of water to increase the coverage of the glaze. Estimate how much you will need by halving the amount of standard paint you would require to cover the same sized area of wall.

Traditional Tip:
- Mixing a traditional glaze
For 1 litre add 600 ml white spirit to 300 ml boiled linseed oil and 120 ml white, oil-based undercoat or eggshell. Tint using artist's oil paints.

Sponging
- Whether sponging whole walls or selected areas, such as beneath a dado rail, this effect transforms the look of a flat wall surface. A single layer of sponging produces a subtle, airy pattern, while multiple layers produce a busier, bolder effect that has greater depth.

Sponging Successfully
Removing excess
- When sponging on, decant the glaze on to an old plate or rimmed paint-tub lid. Dip the face of a damp sponge into the glaze, and remove excess by drawing the sponge across the rim; otherwise the first impression will be thick and blotchy. If you do apply too much, reapply some base colour.
Rotating the hand
- Rotate the hand into a slightly different position after each impression to keep the pattern random.
Sponging corners
- Tape a small piece of sponge on to the end of a pencil to enable you to reach right into corners.

Using colour effectively
Sponging dark on to light
- Use a light base coat and gradually apply darker shades on top to produce a highly distinctive pattern. The colour of the final coat applied will always be the most dominant.
Sponging light on to dark
- use a dark base coat and apply progressively lighter shades on top for a translucent effect. You will see a larger colour range since the light colours will not obliterate preceding coats.

Stippling
Stippling is a subtle paint effect, using a brush to create the impression of a textured surface that may range from a light, velvety appearance to a coarser finish, depending on the size and compactness of the bristles. This is a time-consuming technique, but very satisfying.

Choosing Brushes
Using specialist brushes
- If you can afford one, buy a stippling brush, which is ideal for stippling since it consists of a thick wad of bristles.

Finding an alternative
- For a less costly alternative to a stippling brush, trim the bristles of a wallpaper-hanging brush with sharp scissors. Make a dead flat pad of bristles so that all the ends will be in contact with the wall.

Stippling Effectively
Working in sections
- Apply glaze in areas of about 1 m2, using a large paint brush. Cover as evenly as you can, then dab the stippling brush lightly on the wet glaze.
Creating uniformity
- Work from left to right and top to bottom. Do not overlap stipples because they will appear as more heavily shaded areas.
Preventing clogging
- After each area has been stippled, wipe the head of the brush with a lint-free cloth to remove excess glaze. A build-up of glaze will create a patchy effect over the wall.
Adding depth
- Use a slightly darker glaze in the corners of a wall than towards the centre to create a feeling of depth.

Time-Saving Tip: Glazing with a roller
- Use a fine mohair roller to apply glaze to a wall. This is much quicker than using a brush and therefore allows more time for creating an effect. Do not overload the roller, or the glaze might run.

Ragging
- Ragging is similar to sponging, except that a crumpled lint-free cloth is used rather than a sponge. Ragging "off" is easier and more effective than ragging "on". With the latter, cloths become clogged up with glaze, producing a rather gummy, patchy finish.

Creating the Effect

Building up pattern
- Using a damp, scrunched-up rag, apply light pressure on the glaze. Change your grip frequently to produce a random pattern. Return to missed areas before the glaze dries. Rinse the cloth regularly.

Shielding Surfaces

Avoiding smudges
- Hold a strip of card against the adjacent wall to prevent the edge of the rag from smudging colour on to it. Move the card down as you paint. Wipe the card regularly to avoid a glaze build-up.

Bagging
- Use the same technique as for ragging, but substitute a plastic bag for the lint-free cloth.

Choosing bags
- You will need a ready supply of bags to hand so that you can throw one away and pick up a new one as you need to.
Experimenting
- Different types of plastic create different effects: do not be afraid to experiment.
Softening edges
- Bagging creates an angular effect. For a more understated look, gently brush the bagged surface. Use a softening or wallpaper-hanging brush.

Rag Rolling
- Rag rolling requires a more ordered technique than simple ragging, because the effect created is one-directional: it mimics falling material. It is ideal for areas such as those beneath dados and in wall panels, since it is difficult to execute uniformly over large areas.

The above techniques are easy to use. Take your time and enjoy!

Rag work -Basic Techniques

Rag work -Basic Techniques

There are many techniques that can be used; each technique has its own characteristics and each is suitable for different items.
Some of them are: Hooking, Prodding, Plaiting, Crochet, Knitting and Wrapping. Here I am going to give you instructions on how to use all these techniques.

HOOKING

This is the most common technique used in rag work, and also the most versatile. It lends itself to recycling and can revitalize many redundant materials, including plastics and foil as well as a huge range of fabrics, both natural and synthetic.

Strips of these materials are worked, or hooked, through a hessian backing cloth. They can be left as a loop pile surface, or sheared with scissors to create a cut pile surface. An effective use of hooking is to combine cut and loop pile within one piece. This gives a sculpted, three-dimensional appearance, as you can see in the Queen of Hearts and Mythological Beast projects.

1. Place one hand underneath the frame, and loop a strip of fabric between your thumb and forefinger. With your other hand above the frame, push the hook through the hessian. Feed the fabric loop on to the hook.

2. Pull the hook back up through the hessian, bringing the end of the strip of fabric through to the top.

3. Leave 1-2 warp threads of hessian to keep the loops close together. Push the hook back through the hessian and feed the fabric loop on to the hook, as before. Pull the hook back up through the hessian to make a loop, approximately 1 cm high. Continue. Bring the ends of fabric through to the top, and trim to the same height as the loops.

4. To create a cut pile surface, repeat steps 1-3 but hook the loops to a height of approximately 2 cm. Shear across the top of the loops with a large pair of scissors.


Sample Swatches of Hooked Materials

The most unlikely fabrics and materials can be incorporated within your work, and recycling is a natural, traditional approach to exploring the technique of hooking.

- Sea Green Knitted Cotton Jersey T-Shirt Fabric
Works well for both cut and loop pile surfaces. Results in a highly durable surface, suitable for rugs.
- Red Foil Crisps Packets
Loop pile gives the most interesting results. Good for jewellery and other fashion accessories.
- Tan-coloured Nylon Tights
It works with both surfaces, quite diverse results. Suitable for most projects. Try other colours.
- Petrol Blue Knitted Woollen Dress Fabric
This fabric felts when machine-washed on a high temperature setting. Versatile, good for use in any project.
- Rust-coloured Satin Coat Lining Fabric
Look beyond a coat's exterior - linings are available in many colours. It is most suitable for hats, bags and wall hangings.
- Denim Jeans
Denim can be used by itself to great effect; combining washed and faded denim with darker indigo shades. Very hard-wearing, hooked denim floor rugs have a long lifespan.
- Mint Green Patterned Crimplene Dress Fabric
Not known for its beauty in its former life but very effective here. Numerous uses in interior and fashion projects.
- Green Plastic Carrier Bag
Slips through the hessian with the greatest of ease! Waterproof - suitable for bathmats, jewellery, wall pieces.
- Lemon Yellow Acrylic / Wool Blanket
Cut thicker, heavier weight fabric into thinner strips. Excellent wearing properties, this is most suitable for floor rugs.
- Red Tartan Kilt Fabric
Woven and printed fabrics help to break up areas of flat colour. Little difference between the look of the loop and cut surfaces. Good for decoration..

PRODDING

The prodding technique is also known as proggie, peggy, tabbie, poked and brodded, to name but a few of the regional variations. Traditionally wool clippings from old, worn clothing and blankets were used to make "clippy" mats.

This technique is worked from the reverse side of the backing. Prodding creates a deep, shaggy surface and works well for soft, thick textured rugs or wall hangings. Designs tend to have an impressionistic look, as the details are blurred due to the surface pile.

1. Prepare the fabrics by cutting them into clippings 7 x 1½ cm. Working on the underside of the frame, make a hole with the tapered end of the prodder. Take a clipping and prod it halfway through the hessian, using the prodder. Use your other hand on the other side to catch and pull the fabric down to approximately half its length.

2. Make another hole with the prodder a bit less than 1 cm away, or 4-5 warp threads of hessian.

3. Prod the other end of the clipping through this hole. Using your hand underneath, tug both ends of the clipping until they are of even length. Continue by prodding the next clipping through the same hole as the end of the first clipping.

PLAITING

Plaiting is strongly associated with American folk art. Three strips of fabric are first plaited together. The plaits are then joined by machine or hand stitched. They can be wound into circular shapes or worked into square or rectangular rugs.

1. Plaiting is much easier if you first fasten the ends of the fabric strips together with a safety pin, and hook this over a cuphook screwed into the wall. Start the plaiting near the safety pin. Bring the right-hand strip over the middle strip, then bring the left-hand strip over the new middle strip. Continue plaiting, turning the raw edges under as much as possible, until you are left with about 20 cm unplaited. Secure the end with a pin.

2. Remove the safety pin and taper the beginning of the plait, trimming as necessary. Stitch neatly to conceal the raw edges when joining the plaits.

CROCHET

In recent years, experimental crochet work has moved away from the tradition of using wool. Using fabric strips creates beautifully subtle changes within colour tones, and the technique works well in three-dimensional projects, such as the Crochet Duffel Bag.

Crochet is also useful for joining knitted pieces together.

Abbreviations
ch: chain
dc: double crochet
lp: loop
sc: single crochet
st: stitch
sl st: slip stitch
tr: treble
yoh: yarn over hook

Making Foundation Chain

Chain stitch is the foundation stitch on to which further stitches are worked. Make a slip loop to form first stitch. Yoh, draw through lp. Repeat until ch reaches desired length.

Slip Stitch

This is used for joining pieces. Sl st, skip 1 ch, insert hook under top lp of next ch. Yoh, draw through ch and lp on hook (1 sl st formed). Repeat to end of ch. Turn, make 1 ch and continue, working next sl st under both lps of 2nd st from hook. Work last sl st of row into last ch.

Double Crochet

This is used to edge knitting. Skip 1 ch, insert hook under top lp of next ch. Yoh, draw through ch only. Yoh and draw through both lps on hook (1 dc formed). Repeat to end of ch. Work last dc of row into last ch. Turn, make 1 ch and continue, working the next dc under both lps of 2nd st from hook.

Treble

Very durable, this is ideal for the bases of various bags. Skip 3 ch, yoh, insert hook under top lp of next ch, yoh and draw through ch only (3 lps on hook). Yoh, draw through next 2lps on hook (2 lps on hook). Yoh, draw through 2 remaining lps on hook (1 tr formed). Repeat to end of ch. Turn, make 3 ch and continue, working next tr under both lps of 2nd st from hook. Work last tr of row into the last ch of previous row.

Knitting

Knitting with fabric strips is an interesting and fun alternative to using wool. Patterned cotton fabrics work particularly well - as the number of stitches grows on the needles, both the top and underside of the fabrics are exposed, revealing softer tones within the colour variations. For a patchwork effect, knit squares of different fabric strips and join together with crochet.

Casting on
Make a slip loop on the left needle to form the first stitch. Insert the right needle through the loop. Wrap the yarn forward, under and over the right needle. Draw the new loop through the slip loop and pass it on to the left needle. Repeat to create as many stitches as you need.

Plain Knit or Garter Stitch
Plain knit, or garter, stitch is the simplest of all knitting stitches. Every stitch of every row is knitted. Hold the working needle in your right hand like a pencil.

Insert the right needle through the first loop on the left needle. Wrap the yarn forward, under and over the right needle. Draw the stitch forward and under and slop it off the left needle on to the right. Repeat to the end of the row, then turn the work and knit the next row.

Casting off
Knit the first two stitches as usual. Insert the left needle under the first stitch made, from left to right. Lift the stitch up and over the second stitch and over the point of the needle. Knit the next stitch from the left needle and repeat the process to the end of the row. Cut the end of the yarn and draw it through the final stitch to finish off.

WRAPPING

This technique uses very little material. Strips of fabrics are bound together with coloured embroidery threads to create wallhangings. Wire can be added to create beautiful, sculptural jewellery.

1. Select three different fabrics, and cut into strips 1 cm wide. Choose a coloured embroidery thread to enhance the fabrics' colours. Pinch the strips tightly together in one hand. Working from the right, with the other hand start to bind the thread closely around the fabric strips.

2. Continue binding with the thread until you wish to change the fabric. Add a loop of thicker yarn, with the loop facing the end you have been working from. Continue to wrap the thread around this.

3. Thread the remaining embroidery thread through the loop. Pull the two ends of the thicker looped yarn towards the left until the thread is fastened off.

Creations...

I love creating new things, especially in Christmas. It is special to create something for your love ones. I have a few good ideas for Christmas presents, I hope you like them.

Crispy Jewellery
- Even crisps packets can be recycled in rag-work! The shiny foil is perfect for modern jewellery, and it can be cut into strips and hooked to make a loop pile surface just like fabric or yarn. Here the foil in the middle of the heart-shaped brooch contrasts beautifully with the dark fabric border. The matching ring is made following the same instructions. The card templates used for both shapes are very easy to make. You could also design other simple brooch shapes, such as a star, a crescent moon or a flower.

Materials and Equipment you will need:
- Card
- Scissors
- Hessian, 30 x 30 cm
- Marker pen
- Embroidery hoop
- Dark Fabric
- Hook
- Foil crisps packets
- Latex carpet adhesive and applicator
- Clear-drying impact adhesive
- Black felt, 12 x 12 cm
- Needle and matching thread
- Brooch clip fastening
- Ring fitting
- Superglue

Steps to follow:
1. Make a card template for the brooch. Draw a heart shape approximately 8 cm across. Place the template on the hessian and draw round it, using a marker pen. Put the hessian into the embroidery hoop.
2. Cut the dark green fabric into strips 1 cm wide. Begin hooking, following the outline of the heart shape. make close loops, approximately 1 cm high.
3. Cut the crisps packets into strips 1 cm wide. Fill in the centre of the heart shape with loops of the same height as the fabric loops. Bring all the ends through to the top of the work, and trim any excess lengths.
4. Remove the hessian from the hoop and cut around the shape, allowing a border of 2.5 cm. Apply a thin layer of latex adhesive to the back and the border. Leave to dry for 3 - 5 minutes.
5. Using scissors snip the border in towards the design at regular intervals. Turn in the edges and press down firmly. Apply small dabs of clear adhesive to the back of the work, and then cover with the black felt. Slip stitch around the edge.
6. Place the clip fastening on the back of the brooch. Stitch, using double thread. To make the ring, use a 2.5 cm diameter circle for the template. Attach the ring fitting with superglue.

Geometric Hairband
- The long, rectangular shape of this hairband lends itself to a bold repeat pattern of squares or triangles. Alternatively, you could work out your own design and colour scheme on graph paper. Try hooking small flowers or heart shapes for a completely different look. Nylon fabrics have been used in this project, but you could use cottons or a mixture of fabrics. The hairband is fastened very simply with matching ribbon ties.

Materials and Equipment you will need:
- Card
- Scissors
- Hessian, 61 cm x 30 cm
- Marker pen
- Staple gun
- Wooden frame
- Ruler
- Nylon fabrics, in assorted colours
- Hook
- Latex carpet adhesive and applicator
- Clear-drying impact adhesive
- Black felt, 33 cm x 5 cm
- Needle and matching thread
- Dressmaker's pins
- Ribbon, 1 m

Steps to follow:
1. Make a rectangular card template measuring 32 x 4 cm. Place in the centre of the hessian and draw round it, using a marker pen. Use a staple gun to attach the hessian to the frame.
2. Cut the fabrics into strips 1 cm wide. Begin by hooking the outline of your chosen design, working in close loops. Shear across the tops of the loops to create a cut pile surface.
3. Fill in the shapes, using contrasting fabrics alternately. Shear across the tops of the loops periodically as the work progresses.
4. When the design is completed, remove the hessian from the frame. Cut round the hooked rectangle, allowing an extra border of at least 2.5 cm. Apply a thin layer of latex adhesive over the back, including the border. Leave to dry for 3 - 5 minutes.
5. Turn in the border and press down firmly. Apply small dabs of clear adhesive on the back, and then cover with the black felt. Slip stitch the felt in place, turning under any excess fabric.
6. Pin the ribbon along the centre back of the hairband, leaving equal lengths at each end to make the ties. Stitch the ribbon in place.

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Rag work

Some years ago I thought that rag work was something I will never try. I thought that it would be very difficult. One day I visited a friend. In her house I saw exquisite pieces of rags. I asked their origin and the answer was not what I expected. She made them herself!!! I was so surprised because I could never imagine that a hobby could produce so fine results. When she saw how surprised I was, she offered to show me the basic techniques. Believe me I was willing to learn much more than that and I did. Now I am in the position to tell you what she taught me back then. Try rag work, it is more than a hobby...

Here I will start with the materials. Do not think of something expensive, the materials are recycled and therefore very inexpensive. Even the most unlikely fabrics, such as crimpling or unfashionable prints, are transformed when cut into strips and mixed with other colors and textures. Modern rag makers even use discarded plastic carrier bags, crisps and sweets packets. The other inexpensive material widely used in rag work is Hessian.

You can find below all the details that you will need concerning materials to use for rag work.

Cotton Fabrics
In particular old printed shirts and dresses or remnants, are ideal for rag work and particularly suitable for plaiting, crochet and knitting.

Jersey Fabrics
Cotton T-shirts are lovely to work with, fray very little and are good for cut or loop pile surfaces.

Fabric strips
A wide variety of fabric can be recycled, including old clothing, curtains and bedclothes. Cut off any fastenings and seams.

Plastic strips
These are a modern option to use with or instead of fabric. Plastic carrier bags slip easily through the Hessian and create unusual textures.

Foil strips
Add sparkle with foil-backed crisps packets and gift wrap.

Black felt
It is used as a smart backing cloth to finish jewellery, mirror frames and tablemats. Cut offcuts into strips and use in another project.

Calico
This is cheap, lightweight cotton very suitable for internal covers for cushion pads. It can be used as a backing cloth.

Hessian
Originally old sacking cloth was used to hook or prod through. Hessian, made from jute, has a pliable, woven construction and the warp and weft threads open and close easily. It is available in different weights. 250gr is perfect for rag work.

Tapestry canvas
It has a more rigid construction and can therefore be worked without a frame. For a rug, choose a weave of three holes to 2.5cm

Carpet webbing tape
This one is a heavy-duty woven calico tape, used to cover the edges of rugs. It comes in various widths.

Carpet binding tape
This is also used to bind edges and seams on the back of rugs.

Thin wire
It is useful in sculpted pieces. It is often used in the wrapping technique.
Latex carpet adhesive
It is used in backing finished pieces of rag work. Use in a well-ventilated area and avoid contact with clothing.

Clear-drying impact adhesive
It can be used in small amounts to stick backing cloth such as felt to smaller pieces of work.

Superglue
It is a very strong, quick-drying adhesive that is used to secure jewellery findings, such as ring fittings etc.

Brooch clip fastenings
These are available in metal in several designs. The two pictured are suitable for rag work jewellery. The brooch bar-style fastening is sewn to the back of work, while the round-shaped fastening is best stuck on.

Hair clip fastenings
They are available in several sizes. Measure the finished hairslide shape to determine the length of the bar needed.

Ring fittings
Made in metal, these are available in silver and gold finishes. Adjustable styles are best.

Drinks can ring pulls
They make ideal hangers for picture and mirror frames.

Elastic hair bands
These are available in a variety of colors so you can coordinate hair accessories.

Black sewing thread
It is used to tack down edges and to slip stitch black felt backing cloth into position.

Invisible thread
It is very strong. It is used to hem finish any color.

Colored sewing threads
For hard-wearing projects, use double-thickness cotton or a polyester mix sewing thread.

Colored viscose / rayon embroidery threads
They come in a selection of bright, acidic colors. Use to bind strips of fabric in wrapping.

Colored cotton embroidery thread
It is thicker than general sewing thread and suitable for hand-sewn decorative finishes.

All the above are basic the materials that you will probably need for rag work. You can use other materials as well, if you think they match.

Besides the materials you will need equipment as well. Rag work requires very few specialist tools. The equipment needed depends on which rag work techniques you are using. Plaiting and wrapping need least equipment of all; little more than a needle and thread. Knitting and crochet are done with ordinary needles. For hooking or prodding, you need a frame of some kind. Small projects can be worked in an embroidery hoop.

Here you can find a list of equipment that you will probably need.

1. Masking tape is used to stick down a tracing, prevent the raw edges of Hessian fraying, or to tape the rough edges of tapestry canvas, to avoid skin irritation.
2. Tape measure. This is an essential item and more flexible than a ruler.
3. Dressmaker’s pins are handy to hold fabric in place before stitching.
4. Safety pin. This is used in the plaiting technique.
5. Sewing needles are constantly used for finishing, especially when attaching the backing cloth. Also they are important in plaiting.
6. Crochet hook (10 mm size) is needed for the crochet technique and it can also be used in the hooking technique.
7. Knitting needles (10 mm size) are used for the knitted patchwork rug.
8. Drawing paper. It is always a good idea to draw the design first.
9. White card is used for making templates.
10. Cutting mat. A plastic self-healing cutting mat prevents marking your table.
11. Tracing paper is used to sketch and transfer the design.
12. String is used in setting up a frame. By using a large-eyed needle, stitch the string through the Hessian and around the frame edge to get the Hessian taut.
13. Craft knife. Use as an alternative to scissors for cutting out templates.
14. Scissors are essential in all rag work projects. You need two pairs: a sharp pair for cutting fabric and a pair for cutting paper, foil and plastic, as these materials will blunt the blades.
15. Marker pen. A large, black, indelible marker pen works best for marking out the design on the Hessian
16. Transfer pencil. This is used to transfer the design on to the Hessian. Draw over the reverse of the artwork, and then iron on.
17. Prodder. This is a blunt-ended wooden tool used in making a prodded mat. An alternative is a large, smooth-ended wooden peg.
18. Hook. This has a hand-turned yew handle with a tapering brass sharp-ended hook. It is pushed through the Hessian up to the wooden handle, leaving a large hole.
19. Metre rule. Use this to mark out the outline of a large rug on to Hessian.
20. Ruler. Use this to measure straight edges for small-scale design work.
21. Large adjustable frame and pegs. The traditional wooden mat-making frame is adjustable, with two pieces of wood for the length, two) with drilled holes in which to position the pegs) for the sides, and four turned wooden pegs, one for each corner. The length can be wrapped round the frame so that you can continue working on the next area, approximately 56 cm deep. Hessian is stapled or strung on to the frame and the pegs are then positioned one at each corner, keeping the Hessian very taut. Use this for larger rugs and wall hangings.
22. Embroidery hoops are used to stretch Hessian for making smaller items.
23. Artist’s stretchers make a good portable frame and are available in pairs in many different lengths. Always use a frame larger than the finished piece of work.
24. Pliers are used to cut wire, particularly in the wrapping technique.
25. Sewing machine. This is not an essential item, but very helpful for stitching appliqué and hems.
26. Rotary cutter. This is useful for quickly cutting layers of fabric into strips.
27. Staple gun. This can be used to attach the Hessian to the frame quickly.
28. Iron. Hessian is usually supplied either rolled or folded, so you may need to iron out any creases.

So, all you have to do is to gather all the materials and equipments that you will need (it is not necessary to have everything) and we will start together. Later I will give you the basic techniques and then I will tell you how you can make yourself rugs, jewellery, handbags, cushions and many more things that you probably would like to have or to give to your love ones.

Building Fixed-Glass Windows

While building a house a few years ago, we experienced the usual number of surprises at material costs and delivery times. One of the worst surprises concerned fixed-glass windows. The home is a passive-solar design, so it includes many such windows. We reasoned that because these windows were substantially simpler in construction than the wooden casement windows used elsewhere, they would cost less.

A typical wooden casement is a marvel of precision construction, maintaining airtight weather-seals over many linear feet of sash and through years of winter storms and summer heat. In the San Francisco Bay Area, casement windows typically cost $20 to $30 per sq. ft. of glazed area, including screens. Although window wholesalers told us not to rely on this approximation, we found it to be generally accurate.

We were shocked to discover that a fixed-glass equivalent would run $35 to $45 per sq. ft. of glazed area - an assembly without moving parts or weather-stripping. Adding insult to injury, the first company we contacted quoted a 14 week delivery time. Other companies promise slightly better delivery times, but could not break the $35 per sq. ft. price barrier.

We did not consider ourselves window craftsmen. And it remains true that casement window require so much special tooling that we could not reasonably compete with a production window shop. But the project architect convinced us that we could build quality fixed-glass window in a reasonable amount of time and do so at a price (including our labour, of course) far below the alternatives.

Simple frames
The house is a single-story contemporary with opposing shed roofs and a clerestory. Because the fixed-glass windows follow the roof lines they are trapezoidal. Altogether there are 12 of these windows scattered around the house. We started by laying out all the windows full-scale on the sub-floor.

By far, the most important detail in any window is the sill. The sill is the last stopping point for water before it either drips harmlessly off the house, or is pulled destructively into the walls by capillary action. The 15o bevel on the front of the sill directs water away from the building, while the drip kerf underneath the sill guarantees that capillary action will not pull the water into the house. Milling the jambs and sills from solid stock and incorporating integral stops (rather than using applied stops) similarly prevents water from migrating past the glazing.

The window sills are 1.75 inch thick altogether, with a 0.75 inches thick integral stop, a 0.75 inches thick centre section and a 0.25 inches rabbet in the bottom that fits over the rough opening and further discourages water from entering the house. The head and jamb pieces, which are identical to each other in cross section, are essentially sill pieces without the bevel and kerf details, but they are only 1.50 inches thick altogether because they do not need the 0.25 inches rabbet. The jambs and sills are made of #1 clear white pine and were milled on a table-saw with a dado blade.

All the surfaces that would show after installation were first sanded, and then the pieces were cut to the proper length and angle. The integral stops on the end of each piece had to be cut back (notched) in order to butt the side jambs into the headers and sills. We cut the sills so that the bevelled portion extended past the side jambs on both sides by the width of the exterior trim. The frames were glued and screwed together, and then each was laid on top of its respective chalk-line template on the sub-floor to check the dimensions.

Setting the frames
After the glue had cured, we painted the window frames, the exterior stop and the exterior trim with two coats of primer. After cutting the exterior trim, we attached it to the jambs and heads with a pneumatic finish nailer, driving 8d aluminium finish nails. We stay away from electroplated galvanized nails because they seem to lose their plating and eventually bleed. If we were hand-nailing, though, hot-dipped galvanized 8ds would have been fine. The nail holes were puttied and sanded smooth.

The finished (but unglazed) frames were then set in the rough openings, plumbed and nailed into place. We use standard flashing details, but for good measure, we always run a bead of caulk between the top of the trim and the building paper. After installing the siding, we caulked again between the siding and trim.

Fitting the glass
To make sure the insulating glass would fit into our frames, we cut cardboard template 3/8 inches smaller than the width of the window opening and 3/16 inches smaller than the height and gave them to a glass company. When installing the glass, you can either seal it with glazing tape or with caulking. But if you use caulking, make sure it is compatible with the seal used by the insulating-glass manufacturer. In this case, we used caulk and applied it against the vertical face of each integral stop. We followed with a second application on the outside between the glass and the exterior stops. We used redwood for the exterior stops and nailed them up with 6d aluminium nails. For extra protection, we cut 15o bevels in the sill stops.

We set the glass directly on the sill and have had no problems with it in the two years that the windows have been in place. We have since learned, however, that the Sealed Insulating Glass Manufacturer's Association (SIGMA) recommends setting fixed glass on a pair of small neoprene blocks (called setting blocks), which help distribute the weight of the glass and prevent water from being trapped behind the glass. SIGMA also recommends drilling a pair of weep holes in the exterior sill stops.

Corner sidelight
At the front entrance of the house we built a large sidelight with two panes of glass meeting at right angles. In this case only one header - supported by an exterior wall on one end and by an interior partition on the other - was needed to carry the roof loads. It is conceivable that two headers could be required in circumstances where two load-bearing walls intersect at the window. Several manufacturers of metal connectors make a framing clip for headers that intersect other headers. Because of the unusual glazing detail, it was critical that the rough opening be plumb on either side of the window's corner.

The corner unit was built with the same jamb, sill and head sections as the other windows. First the sill and jamb stock were fabricated as described in the previous sections. Then the sills and heads were mitered and cut to length in matching pairs. Accuracy in cut length was important to guarantee a square opening for the glass. The jambs were cut to matching lengths and the whole unit was assembled near the rough opening.

Before the glue had a chance to set, we placed the unit in the rough opening, aligned the corner of the sill with the corner of the framing, shimmed it level and tacked it in place. We used a plumb bob to align the mitered corner of the head jamb to the identical point on the sill below. Next, the sill was tacked near each jamb and the head adjusted in or out until plumb. Then we stepped back and double-checked that everything was plumb and level.

It was not critical that the corner be exactly 90o. The critical requirement was that the jambs were plumb so that the two panes of glass would meet neatly at the corner. If small adjustments were needed, this was the time to make them. Once everything was plumb and level, we set the nails, puttied the holes and sanded them smooth.

Because of the proximity of the window to the door and to the floor, we had to use safety glass. And to achieve a clean line at the intersection of the glass, we used single panes (1/4 inches thick) rather than double-pane insulating glass, which would have made an awkward corner. We installed the glass exactly as before except that we applied a bead of clear silicone between the mating glass surfaces at the corner. After the silicone set, we trimmed off the excess inside and out with a razor blade. The final step was to miter the exterior stops and nail them into place.

Number crunching
When the windows were finished, I calculated how much they had cost us. We paid $4.34 per sq. ft for the insulating glass, $3.29 per sq ft for the tempered glass and billed our time at $40 per hour. The cost for all 12 windows and the corner side-light averaged just under $15 per sq ft.

Building fixed-glass windows is simpler than you might think. After making and installing the window frames, a bead of caulk is run around interior stops and the double-pane insulating glass is set in the opening and held in place with wooden stops.

Tip: Working on the job site with the tools at hand, you can easily beat the cost of special orders.

Table settings and room decoration

When it comes to decorating a dining room, the scheme will depend on several factors, such as whether it is a separate room or part of another, the existing furniture, the available light and the mood you are trying to create. Your choice of colour or theme could be inspired by your china or curtains - or maybe you need a neutral backdrop for stronger accent colours or interesting furniture. Red is a traditional colour for dining rooms and it does promote an intimate atmosphere, but it can be difficult to live with all the time and is best reserved for separate dining rooms.

Whatever colour combination or theme you choose, stick to it as closely as possible - too many styles and colours can create a cluttered look and will feel claustrophobic.

Seating
It is difficult to estimate how many people you can seat around a table. For a start, it depends on how friendly they want to get, but as a rule 60 cm per person is a good guide. If your chairs have arms, about the width of a pair of crossed arms - or 70 cm by a depth of 35 cm - is adequate for each place setting. Something else to bear in mind when seating people is the position of the table legs. Most of us have spent at least one uncomfortable meal with our legs straddling the table leg.

If you are trying to find chairs for a table you already own, take the height of the table with you when you go shopping. Chairs with arms should fit underneath the table for comfort and to save space. Try to allow 30 cm between the chair seat and the tabletop.

Setting a table
- Most dining is fairly casual these days and when it comes to setting a table for dinner there are no strict rules.
- Set places so that guests are evenly spaced around the table, trying to give them a minimum of 60 cm each.
- Lay cutlery according to the order of eating. The first cutlery to be used should be on the outside of the setting, so that you start at the outside and work your way in. Knives (with the blade facing the plate) and spoons go on the right of each place setting; forks on the left.

Glasses stand on the right above the knives and spoons. Use a wide goblet for red wine or water, a small wine glass for white wine and a smaller version yet for sherry or liqueurs. If you are only using one glass, a stemmed goblet will suffice.

The side plate should be on the left of the place setting and to the left of the cutlery, with the napkin on top of it.

Special Occasions
Decorating a table for dinner is the icing on the cake. Take time to plan what you are going to do and match it to the occasion.

Keep to a theme and follow it through to the china, cutlery, napkins and candles. Be creative: outline each place in ivy; put a fresh flower on each plate; tie up cutlery with ribbon; write out the menu and place cards on handmade paper.

Your theme could be a colour or a birthday. Try painting glasses either to match china or with the name or favourite thing of the birthday person. Use cotton sheeting instead of a tablecloth and dye or paint it. It is cheap enough to use for one special occasion.

A centrepiece can be matched to the occasion. Keep it simple and effective: floating candles and flower heads in a decorative bowl of water; a small group of flowers displayed in tin cans; an arrangement of candles of different heights; a pile of presents; a bowl of fruit to be eaten for dessert. Keep the centre-piece low so that guests can talk easily to each other over the top of it.

For a children's party buy a block of sugar paper and use the sheets as table mats; cover the table with a paper table-cloth, give them crayons and let them draw; tie brightly coloured balloons to the backs of chairs and let them take them home afterwards.

Tablecloths and napkins
Unless you want it to be floor length, a tablecloth should have an all-round drop of 25-30 cm so that it falls a little below lap level and your guests do not get tangled up in it. To a certain degree, a cloth will protect the table, but a felt table pad underneath allows you to put warmed plates and dishes safely on the cloth without marking the table.

Table felt is available from department stores, or look through the classified ads in home magazines for mail-order companies who will cut it to size to fit your table.

With so many pretty paper napkins available why bother with the fabric variety? They provide an opportunity to dress the table and create a little theme on a plate. Be imaginative and use twisted ivy, ribbon, parcel tags, dried flower heads, raffia, beads, copper garden tags and handwritten cards. Personalize each napkin for your guests.

For birthday meals, a little present attached to the napkin with ribbon is a nice touch; at Christmas, tie baubles with curling ribbon. There are loads of things you can do...

Fabric napkins do not need to be expensive. Cut them from remnants to match colour schemes, or make each one different. Scour the remnant bins in shops for unusual fabrics at bargain prices. Dress fabrics are ideal for making napkins as they are designed to with stand regular washing. If you use furnishing fabrics, wash them first to remove any dressing or special finish.

Tips: The simplest decorations are the most effective. Floating candles and a cut flower head in a bowl of coloured water look stunning in the centre of the table.

Dining areas as part of another room

Most dining areas are borrowed from another room, usually the kitchen or living room, but a dining area in a large hall or conservatory is not unusual. New houses are often built with just one room downstairs which has to double as both the living and dining area. So how do you decorate a room that has to serve more than one purpose?

- Create different moods by using lighting and furniture to highlight separate areas of the room while keeping the same colour throughout. Freestanding open shelves can divide a dining area from a sitting area without blocking any light and will provide useful storage space for both rooms. Two large rugs on a wooden floor can contain dining and sitting space within their boundaries.

- Another way to create a separate dining area is by using a moveable physical barrier such as a suspended screen to isolate a kitchen from its storage area or muslin on a curtain track. A re-standing screen will partially separate the table to give the dining area an intimate feel, and can be folded back against the wall when not in use.

- The space under the stairs is often under-used, yet this alcove can make a cosy dining area in a small house. Shelved, it will also provide valuable storage space for crockery and glassware. Another often-forgotten space for eating is the hall. Some older houses and flats have enormous hallways that will easily accommodate a large dining table and chairs. Such an arrangement could create a wonderful entrance to any property.

Many people decide to build a conservatory to give themselves an extra room, but if there is not a separate dining room this would be an ideal opportunity to create one. Conservatories are lovely to eat in and by their very nature have views over the garden and an intimate atmosphere when the sun goes down.

Acrylic Glazing

Acrylic is light, easy to cut, and has more impact resistance than glass, though it scratches easily and has a high rate of expansion. Double-skin acrylic sheets are translucent, and the diffuse light is good for plants. Designer Valerie Walsh thermoforms these sheets into curved roof sections for custom sunspaces.

Commonplace now as the stuff of automobile lights, bank security window, gas-station signs, camera and contact lenses, TV screens, and even paint, blankets and carpets, acrylic plastic has been around a long time. Although development of this highly elastic substance began back in the 19th century, it was not until the 1930s that chemical firms first began producing commercial quantities of acrylic, which can be manufactured as a liquid, as fibres or in sheets. It took World War II, when the War Department started testing and using acrylic extensively in aircraft, to push the technology into the applications familiar to us today.

The larger family of plastic glazing materials has been closely scrutinized over the last decade by solar designers and builders searching for the least expensive material for collectors, greenhouses, windows, skylights and water storage. Most plastic glazings are flexible, light-weight, impact-resistant and light-diffusing. Acrylic stands out because it will not degrade or yellow in ultraviolet light. Along with high clarity and an impact resistance of 15 to 30 times greater than that of glass, acrylic offers a lifetime gauged at 20 years.

Given a burning rate of Class II in the codes, acrylic burns very rapidly, but does not smoke or produce gases more toxic than those produced by wood or paper. The ignition temperature is higher than that of most woods, but acrylic begins to soften above 160F.

Used for exterior and interior windows, doors, skylights, clerestories and greenhouse glazing, acrylic sheets can be moulded into various shapes and contours. Both single-skin and double-skin versions of the material are available. Single-skin acrylic is clear and comes in sheets or continuous rolls of various thicknesses. Extruded into a hollow-walled sheet material, double-skin acrylic has interior ribs, spaced 5/8 in. apart, running the length of the sheet. It is translucent, but not transparent.

The Debate
Builders and designers who have worked with acrylic fall into two camps: they either hate it or love it. Any type of glazing is ultimately compared with glass, and those who like acrylic, whether single or double shin, offer these reasons:

It is versatile. Single-skin acrylic can be cut into a multiplicity of shapes, either for pure design reasons or to meet the demands of an out-of-square solar retrofit. Single-skin acrylic can be cold-formed into curves; both single and double-skin sheets can be heat-formed.

Acrylics are easy to cut and can be site-fabricated. Lighter in weight and easier to carry, the double-skin sheet is more convenient to install than glass. The flexibility of single-skin sheets varies with their thickness; longer sheets of thinner acrylic require more people to handle them.

Acrylic has high transmissivity, and better impact strength than glass. Double-skin acrylic has an R-value competitive with insulated glass units. It is safe in overhead applications, because it will not shatter. Instead it breaks into large, dull-edged pieces.

On the other hand, builders who prefer glass offer these reasons: Acrylic has a high rate of expansion and contraction, requiring careful attention to keep an installation leak-proof. As it moves, the acrylic sheet makes a noise described as ticking or cracking and acrylic scratches easily. The extent, to which this is considered a problem, or even an annoyance, varies from builder to builder.

Costs
Acrylic used to be much cheaper than glass, but now single-skin acrylic is competitive only when purchased in bulk. Any cost advantage is likely to be lost if you attempt to double-glaze with single-skin acrylic. This is a labour intensive process, and it is tough to eliminate condensation between the panes. The price of double-skin acrylic is close to that of insulated glass, but the cost is higher if the price of a compression fastening system is figured in. (Some builders expect the price of double-skin acrylic to drop in the future when more companies begin to manufacture it.)

If acrylic is used for a roof in a sunspace or greenhouse, however, its availability in assorted lengths can cut down on labour costs. Designer Larry Lindsey, of the Princeton Energy Group, pints out that long pieces eliminate the need for horizontal mullion breaks, and so can be installed less expensively than several smaller ones. They are also cheaper. An uninterrupted piece of glazing can run the full length of the slope, supported by purlins underneath.

Professional use
Architect David Sellers of Sellers & Co., an architectural firm in Warren Vt., explains his extensive use of acrylic: "Our whole plastics experiment has been an aesthetic means of expanding the type of architecture we do. With acrylic we could push the house beyond what it was already, both the inside and the outside experience of it". In the process, the firm has developed a spectrum of applications for single-skin acrylic (sidebar, below right).

Designer-builder Valerie Walsh, of Solar Horizon, Santa Fe, N. Mex., uses double-skin acrylic greenhouses and sunspaces that are her firm’s specialty. She first used single-skin acrylic because it was slick, clean-looking, and did not degrade in the South-western sun. She began to explore unusual shapes, such as a wheel-spoke roof design. Then she turned to using double-skin acrylic. Walsh thermoforms acrylic in her own shop - curved pieces that are as wide as 5½ ft. and typically 6 ft. to 7 ft. long, although she has done 8-footers.

Safety and economics figured prominently in the Princeton Energy Group's decision to use acrylic glazing overhead in their greenhouses and sunspaces.

"The whole issue is a matter of expense," says Larry Lindsay. "In order to have glass products we feel comfortable installing overhead, we have to pay two penalties, one in transmittance and one in bucks. At present, there is no laminated low-iron glass available at a reasonable cost."

For those who have years of experience with acrylic, a willingness to experiment and to learn from mistakes has produced a valuable body of knowledge about working with the material, its design potential and its limits.

Movement
Leaking is a particular concern with acrylic glazing because it moves a lot, expanding and contracting in response to temperature changes. To avoid leaks, design principle number one is to try to eliminate horizontal joints, and yet glazing systems that may do a perfect job of sealing glass joints will not work at all with acrylic. Its movement will pull the caulk right out.

"Acrylic has a tremendous coefficient of expansion - you have to allow maybe an inch over 14 ft. for movement," cautions Chuck Katzenbach, construction manager at PEG where they have worked with double-skin acrylic for exterior applications and single-skin for interior ones. "No silicones or sealants we know of will stretch that potential full inch of movement." Indeed, one builder tells a story about using butyl tape for bedding: The acrylic moved so much in the heat that the tapes eventually dangled from the rafters like snakes.

Room for expansion must be left on all four sides of an acrylic sheet, because the material will expand and contract in all directions. The amount of movement depends on the length of the sheet and the temperature extremes it will be subject to.

Acrylic glazing can be installed year round, but it is vital to pay attention to the temperature when it is put in place. Katzenbach explains that if it is 30 F outside, then you have to remember to allow for expansion to whatever you figure your high temperature will be. If it could go from 30 F to a peak of 120 F in your greenhouse, you have to make provisions for a 90o change.


Cutting
To cut a sheet of acrylic, use a fine-tooth carbide-tipped blade set for a shallow cut, and move like a snail. This is important because speed will cause little pressure cracks to appear on the bottom edge. While cutting, make sure that the sheet is firmly supported on both sides of the cut. Sharpness is vital, so use that blade only for working with acrylic. When the acrylic is cut it heats up and the edges melt, but the wider kerf of a carbide blade will prevent the newly cut edges from melting back together again. After the cut, the edges can be planed, filed or sanded.

As the acrylic is cut, little fuzzy pieces will fly up. Some will reglue themselves to the edges and can be broken off when the cutting is completed. With double-skin acrylic, the fuzz tends to fill the 5/8 in. dia. columns between ribs. Use an air gun to blow it out.

If you drill acrylic, support the sheet fully, and use a very sharp spade bit, ground to a sharper angle than for drilling wood. The sharper angle helps prevent cracking. Drill very slowly, and slow down even more just before the drill breaks through the sheet. Be prepared to break some pieces, no matter how careful you are.

Acrylic sheets come protected with an adhesive masking, which exposure to rain or sunlight makes quite difficult to remove. Leave the protective masking on the acrylic as long as possible, and be prepared for a good zap from static electricity when you pull it off.

Fastening
For years it has been common practice to fasten single-skin acrylic by screwing it down. The designers at Sellers & Co. developed a pressure-plate fastening system to distribute the pressure evenly and drilled the holes for the bolts or screws an extra 1/8 in. wide to allow for movement. But after ten years or more, the hole has shifted and started pushing against the screw in some installations. Cracks developed where none had existed.

Small cracks in single-skin acrylic can be stopped if the force on them is not too great. Although his firm now uses installation details that do not involve drilling the sheets, Jim Sanford at Sellers & Co., recommends stopping cracks by drilling a 1/4 in. dia. hole at the end of the crack and filling it with silicone. Designer-builder Alex Wade, of Mt. Marion, N.Y., who still uses screws, suggests drilling a tiny hole at the end of the crack, too. He then widens the crack slightly with a knife and fills it with silicone. Finally, he removes the offending screw. Wade suspects that many builders do not take into account the season of the year in which they are working when they drill the holes for screws. When installing acrylic in the extremes of summer or winter, Wade drives the screw either to the inside or the outside of an over-sized hole in the acrylic, to allow for subsequent contraction or expansion when the temperatures change. It is important to space the holes evenly (about 2 ft. apart) and to tighten the screws uniformly to distribute the pressure equally. The sheet must be held down firmly, but still be able to move.

To avoid taking a chance with cracking, however, most builders have abandoned screw. Instead they use a compression system of battens that hold the plastic sheet down on a smooth bed of ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM). It comes in strips and is supplied by several manufacturers. The acrylic can easily slide across the EPDM as it moves.


Manufacturers recommend a 3x rafter to support the bedding in the compression glazing system. PEG installs an interior condensation gutter on greenhouse rafters that doubles as a smooth, uniform bed for the EPDM gasket in the glazing system. The 20-gauge sheet metal straddles the rafter and is bent into a 5/8 in. lip for the gutter on each side.

PEG has also developed a system for a standard 2x. A clear all-heart redwood 1 x 4 trim piece is screwed on top of the 2x, widening the bed and providing a smooth surface (inset drawing, facing page). Concentrated stress on the acrylic sheets is as important to avoid with a compression system as it is with screws. If one point is fastened tighter than the others, the acrylic will bow in and leak or crack.

Larry Lindsey recommends aluminium battens on south-facing roofs, because wooden ones will eventually cup upward, creating a leak. Aluminium battens can be purchased with various finishes, or they can be capped with a strip of red wood.

Double-skin acrylic needs to be supported at its base or it will bow instead of moving within the compression glazing system.

PEG lets the sheets hang over the roof's edges as a shingle would sealing it underneath. For the bottom edge on installations with curved roofs, Valerie Walsh has developed a system with no damming problems. She slides on aluminium terminal section (ATS) from CYRO on the bottom of the double-skin acrylic, then snugs the acrylic into a larger aluminium U-channel that is in turn screwed into the wood beam. Walsh then caulks the inside and rills weep holes through the outside of the U-channel.

In one of his designs, David Sellers decided to glaze the south-facing roof area with long strips of single-skin acrylic. To avoid leaking, he encouraged the tendency of the 1/4 in. sheets to sag slightly. Small blocks under the edges of the sheets accentuate the dip. Melting snow or rain flows to the center of each panel and then drains off the roof. On the bottom edge, an angle keeps the acrylic from slipping.

Glazing materials
Acrylic is fussy stuff. Chuck Katzenbach reels off a list of materials to avoid using with this plastic. Vinyl leaches into acrylic and weakens its edges. Some butyls have plasticizers that may also leach into acrylic. In these cases, either the acrylic will eventually fail or the butyl will become very hard. The plasticizer in most neoprenes is not compatible, so check with the manufacturer.

Compatible glazing materials are few: EPDM heads the list. Silicone caulk is okay, but sooner or later the acrylic's movement will pull it loose. If it is installed on a cold day, the silicone may pull out on the first really warm one. There are many urethane foams you can use, but you would be well advised to consult the manufacturer directly about compatibility.

Support
The double-skin acrylic can bow in over the length of the roof, and the sheet could conceivably pull out of the glazing system under a very heavy snow load, according to Larry Lindsey. So as a cautionary measure, PEG figures on a 30-lb. snow load and installs purlins 4 ft. o.c., about 5/8 in. below the sheet.

Condensation
Acrylic transpires water vapour, so a double-skin unit typically will have some cloudy vapour inside. Double-skin acrylic should be installed with its ribs running down the slope so that any condensation inside the channels will collect at the bottom edge of the sheet. This edge needs to be vented. Double-skin sheets arrive with rubber packing material in both ends of the channels, to keep them free of debris. PEG's construction crew just leaves it there and perforates it with a scratch awl to allow air movement.

Cleaning
Never use abrasives, ammonia-base glass cleaners or paint thinner on acrylic glazing. Mild detergent, rubbing alcohol, turpentine and wax-base cleaner-polishers designed especially for plastic are safe when applied with a soft cloth.

Cleaning brings up the controversial issue of scratching. "The scratching drives me crazy, though other builders do not seem to care as much," says Valerie Walsh. Whether she is storing the sheets she has heat-formed into curves or transporting them to the building site, she keeps thin sheets of foam padding wrapped around every piece.

"With double-skin acrylic, people's tendency is not to expect to be able to see through it. They are not looking through it as they would through a window, and so they are not seeing the small imperfections in the surface itself," argues Chuck Katzenbach.

Even though single-skin acrylic is transparent, many builders who work with it say that scratching just is not a significant problem, particularly if the glazing is kept clean. The only serious scratching problem is likely to be the work of a dog. Most scratches can be easily removed with a Simonize paste-wax buffing. And now some single-skin acrylics are available with a polysilicate coating that makes them abrasion-resistant and also improves their chemical resistance.

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Framing: Materials and Equipment needed...

Frames have existed in one form or another across every civilisation for centuries. A frame gives importance and power to the image within, drawing the eye and holding the viewer's attention. Decorative painted borders are perhaps the first kind of frame. The most basic "frame" surely is to take the floor as the first horizontal, the ceiling as the second, and to create the vertical lines with pillars. This creates an area to view within four borders. Many cultures experimented with this concept.

To make a frame, you only need to spend a small amount of money: a mitre block, wood glue, a saw and some nails. However, there is equipment on the market that helps to ensure straight cuts, seamless corners and good right-angle frames. I will list the simpler equipment you need, along with a few more expensive items. Allow yourself plenty of time and find a place to work which gives you enough room.

FRAMING

Mitre Block
A traditional piece of equipment which is used in conjunction with a tenon saw to create accurate 45 degree cuts. This is vital when creating a traditional square or rectangular frame as you must ensure the moulding is cut precisely. A mitre block is not very expensive and is available from most hardware or DIY stores. You will also need a piece of 5 x 2.5 cm (2 x 1 in.) scrap timber to put inside the block when sawing your moulding.

Tenon Saw
Although any ordinary hand saw will suffice, a tenon saw is recommended for use in a mitre block as it is sturdier and will give you more control.

Wooden Mouldings
These form the basis of most traditional square or rectangular frames. There are many stockists of mouldings. For the widest selection, contact a framing specialist, although timber merchants, some builders' merchants and DIY stores stock mouldings, and it is worth finding somewhere which stocks a wide selection and sells small quantities. If you can obtain a catalogue of mouldings, it is fun to browse through this at your leisure in the comfort of your own home.

Hand Drill
Small drills are available for intricate work, but a standard hand drill can be used for framing. If the drill bits are too large, you can cut the headings off moulding pins and use these instead.

Moulding pins or Veneer pins
These are better than panel pins as they are sharper and thinner and they will not split the frame when you hammer them in place.

Wood Adhesive
Used for gluing mouldings together, white PVA based wood adhesive is available from hardware and DIY stores.

Hammer
Choose a middleweight hammer. Anything too heavy will probably be difficult to handle; likewise if the hammer does not have sufficient weight, you will have to use more force than is necessary.

Sandpaper
All frames will need sanding to smooth joints, or in preparation for paint or stain. Use a fine grade sandpaper available from any hardware or DIY store.

Mitre Clamp
This will ensure you can glue and nail your components into a true right angle. It holds the wood by clamping it tightly together. Some clamps have an extension so that you can put right-angle moulding pins in from the back of the frame. This is recommended if you are doing a lot of framing. This will only be available from framing specialists. A simple mitre clamp should also be available from carpenters' suppliers.

Frame Clamp
This will hold your frame at true right angles while the glue dries. It is not very expensive to buy from a specialist supplier, but you can make your own from four solid 45 degree angles and piece of string.

"D" rings
These are used with screws or split pins to hang the picture on the wall. The advantage is that they keep the frame fairly flat against the wall. They are available through some glass merchants or through framing catalogues and stockists.

Screw Eyes
You may prefer to use these as an alternative to D rings, but they will hold the frame slightly away from the wall.

Cord or Wire
I prefer using nylon cord to traditional picture wire. However, a very heavy picture will require wire. Nylon cord is available from DIY stores, picture framers and haberdashery departments.

Mitre Saw
If you plan to make a lot of frames, a mitre saw is an easier way of cutting to an angle. It will also allow you to make hexagonal shapes as you can choose the angle you want to cut. A mitre saw is available from DIY stores or tool stockists but is generally expensive and, if you are inexperienced at using one, it will take some practice to develop the skill to operate it.

MOUNTING

Mounting materials must - above all - be clean and straight-edged, and the blade in your knife must be sharp. The better the conditions of your tools, the more professional the result will be.

Mount Board
There are many colours of mount board available: from white to black, marbled to mottled. Keep the board stored in a clean, dry place and preferably flat rather than standing on its edge. Most suppliers should let you have a sample book which you can keep at home for reference.

Coloured mount board is basically a white board with decorative paper adhered to both sides, so no matter what colour you buy, the edge will show white when you cut it.

Mount board is available from art suppliers, but framing specialists will stock a larger range.

Cutting Mat
This is an essential part of mounting, providing a safe and clean surface on which to cut your board. The mat is a self-healing rubber which allows you to put pressure on your knife without damaging the blade. Ensure you have plenty of space around the mat as a cramped space creates wobbly cutting. Most art and craft suppliers will stock cutting mats.

"T" Square
A "T" square with a rubberized backing is very useful for cutting. it does not slip and will ensure you cut at a right angle.

Cutting Knife
Choose a strong steel craft knife.

Mount Cutter
A small, hand-held mount cutter is quite inexpensive and easy to use. Most art and craft suppliers will be able to obtain one for you, even if they do not have one in stock. Buy extra blades so that the one you use is always razor sharp.

The mount cutter is still only a piece of hobby equipment and not a professional item, so it is not extremely expensive. It is very easy to operate and will guarantee a straight and accurate line every time. It is a good investment if you are planning lots of framing and mounting.

Tape
There are a variety of tapes on the market, but brown paper tape is the most useful to the framer. Use it to stick artwork on to a background. Because the tape is made of paper it will react to ambient conditions in the same way as the art work itself, so you will avoid any creasing or buckling. A ready-gummed brown tape is good for sealing the back of the frame as it will prevent dampness from entering and mouldering the mount and picture inside.

Although masking tape is handy, it is best only used for temporary positioning, as the brown tapes are longer-lasting and superior.

Scissors
Only use scissors for tape or paper. Do not attempt to cut board with them as you will never achieve a completely straight and true line.

Other Items
A clean, clear ruler is useful for measuring and drawing lines. Use an "H" pencil with a sharp pint for accurate line drawing. Keep an artist's soft eraser to hand for removing dirty finger marks or erasing mistakes.

Tools/Equipment needed for decoration purposes

Choosing the right Equipment
Home-decorating outlets and retail chains are full of tools and equipment designed to aid you in almost every decorating project. Quality is unquestionably the key to success when buying equipment. Remember that you can add to a tool collection as the need arises.

Basic Painting Equipment

Having the most suitable tools for painting projects is very important. There are several basic tools that should form part of every home decorator's painting kit, and which may then be added to for tasks with more specific requirements. Buying good-quality equipment will reap benefits in the form of better, longer-lasting results.

The basic painting equipments are:- Fitch
- 50 mm (2 in) brush
- 100 mm (4 in) brush
- Smooth roller sleeve
- Rough roller sleeve
- Dust mask
- Tape measure
- Paint kettle
- Roller cage
- Radiator roller
- Roller extension handle
- Bucket
- Dust sheet
- Roller tray
- Filling knife
- Sandpaper

Create paint effects
If you intend to use paint effects, you will require some additional equipment as well as certain different materials.

Testing equipment
Before buying any painting equipment - but especially large, costly pieces - test them for sturdiness, and make sure that they have an adequate guarantee.

Tips for choosing painting tools

Brush
Brushes are multi-purpose and come in many shapes and sizes. They are ideal for cutting in and painting intricate details, and can be used on open wall surfaces, but will be slower than other tools.

Roller
Rollers are ideal for wide open surfaces, being by far the quickest tools for covering walls efficiently. Their size varies, but rollers are too large for cutting in. The texture of rollers also varies.

Sprayer
Sprayers are ideal where little masking is required, and for painting broad wall surfaces and inaccessible areas such as behind pipes. Using a sprayer can be a messy business, so protect adjacent surfaces.

Pad
Pads are suitable for large surfaces, and small pads are available for cutting in. They cause less mess than rollers. Use them where extensive masking would otherwise be necessary, such as in kitchens.

Additional Painting Equipment

Building up a paint-effect tool kit can be expensive, so do it gradually. Buy equipment as you need it, rather than purchasing everything that you think you may need in the future, only to find that you use few items.

Use the following list as a guide.
- Large decorating brush
- Flogger
- Masking tape
- Stencilling brush
- Natural sponge
- Craft knife
- Plastic bag
- Lint-free cloth
- Stippling brush
- Cutting mat


Improvising
You can use tools other than special-effect equipment for paint techniques. Experiment with different objects - ordinary household items as well as decorating tools - to create unique effects.

Basic Wallpapering Equipment
You will need more equipment for papering walls than for painting. Many tools, however, are required for both, so once those items are in your toolkit they can be used for either job.

Here you can find a list of that equipment:
- Goggles
- Wallpaper-hanging brush
- Pasting brush
- Rubber gloves
- Pasting table
- Pencil
- Cross-head screwdriver
- Slot-head screwdriver
- Seam roller
- Filling knife
- Ruler
- Wallpaper hanging scissors
- Spirit level
- Stepladder
- Bucket
- Chalk line
- Steam stripper
- Wallpaper scraper
- Sponge
- Craft knife
- Measuring jug
- Tape measure

Prioritizing quality
Buy the best quality tools that you can afford. This is particularly important for the items that are used most, and those that come into direct contact with the wallpaper, such as wallpaper-hanging and pasting brushes, seam roller, scissors, and a craft knife. The latter two items are vital for making accurate cuts and, therefore, achieving the best possible finish.

Choosing brushes
Select a pasting brush that will cover a surface evenly and efficiently, and a wallpaper-hanging brush with long, flexible bristles.

Considering safety
Follow the same safety precautions with regard to wallpapering materials and equipment as for painting.


Basic Painting Equipment for Wood

Equipment for painting wood is little different from that for painting walls, requiring just a few additional items.

The equipments are:
- Angle-head paintbrush
- 12.5 mm (½ in) paintbrush
- 50 mm (2 in) paintbrush
- Lint-free cloth
- Sandpaper
- Hot-air gun
- Dust sheet
- Small roller and tray

Choosing brushes
Painting woodwork involves more detailed and smaller-scale work than painting walls, so you will need a larger range of small brushes. Pure bristle brushes give the highest quality finish but are more expensive than their synthetic counterparts. They are, however, easier to use.

Selecting sandpaper
Buy several grades of sandpapers. A good quality, fine-grade paper is essential for the smoothest possible finish.

The additional painting equipments that you might need are:
- Fitch
- Softener
- Flogger
- Comb
- Rocker
- Burnishing tool
- Lint-free cloth
- Wire brush
- Wire wool
- Jam jar

Much of the equipment used for creating paint effects on walls can also be used for woodwork. Many tools are multi-purpose.

Including brushes
Include a variety of sizes of brush in your toolkit to cater for different surface areas and finishes.
Meeting specific requirements
A tool such as a rocker will enable you to produce a highly individual wood effect.

Shelving Equipment

Shelves may be constructed from a variety of different materials, but their basic design remains relatively consistent.

Here you can find a list of shelving equipment:
- Spirit level
- Medium-weight bracket
- Heavy-weight bracket
- Expanding wing plug
- Spring toggles
- Plastic wall plugs
- Power drill
- Shelf supports
- Shelving track (Large, medium, small)
- Shelves (Glass, Softwood, Hardwood)

Supporting shelves
All shelves require some support. The exact nature of the support will be determined by the decorative requirements of the shelving and the type of fixing it needs. Use strong supports for a heavy shelf, or one that will carry a heavy load.

Basic Hanging Equipment
A limited amount of equipment is required for picture hanging, since it is a relatively simple job to carry out. However, using the correct equipment is essential, in order to ensure that pictures are hung safely and securely.

The basic hanging equipments are:
- Hammer
- Pencil
- Picture hanging-cord
- Picture hanging-wire
- Eyelets
- Screws
- Wall plugs
- J hook
- Picture rail hook
- Nails and double picture hook
- Nail and single picture hook
- Concrete wall hook

Keeping pictures on the wall
Prevent picture fastenings or fixings from failing by using the appropriate hooks and thread for each picture. Many hooks are sold with guidelines as to the weight they can bear.

Basic Flooring Equipment

Much of the equipment needed for flooring is already a part of most household toolkits, but in case you are not organised I have a list of equipment that I am sure will help you get organised.

- Tenon saw
- Panel saw
- Tile cutter
- Cross-headed screwdrivers
- Slot-headed screwdrivers
- Craft knife
- Tape measure
- Spirit level
- Disc cutter
- Knee kicker
- Nail punch
- Chalk line
- Bolster
- Carpenter's pencil
- Claw hammer
- Staple punch

Tips:
1. Hiring specialist tools. Hire specialist equipment if you need it. It is usually expensive, and you are unlikely to use it enough to justify buying.
2. Checking hired equipment. Make sure that equipment is working and has all necessary operating instructions and safety recommendations.
3. Planning tool use. Plan your work so that you hire equipment only when you need it. Do not hire an item on day one if you will not require it until day three.

Basic Tiling Equipment

A toolkit for tiling will include a few more specialist tools than those which are required for most other decorating jobs. However, some general tools are, in effect, multi-purpose and lend themselves to a number of different tasks.

The list of tiling equipment is the following:
- Score-and-snap pliers
- Power drill
- Tile file
- Tile saw
- Nibbler
- Sponge
- Tile scorer
- Tile spacers
- Tile cutter
- Sealant dispenser
- Pointing trowel
- Filling knife
- Spirit level
- Felt-tip pen
- Notched spreader
- Grout spreader
- Tape measure
- Goggles
- Tile gauge

Choosing a tile cutter
By far the most important piece of equipment you will buy for tiling purposes is a tile cutter. Buy a good quality one, since a sub-standard cutter will not produce clean edges and will increase the number of tiles that you break while cutting. This is wasteful of materials and time, and will result in greater expense in the long run.

Buying wisely
Do not be deterred by the initial expense of a few key tiling items: they may prove themselves to be worth it in the long term, especially as your technique improves.

Hiring instead of buying
Consider hiring expensive pieces of equipment such as tile-cutting machines, which you will use only occasionally.

HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDELINES

When decorating, consider the following important health and safety aspects:

Following Instructions
- Always read manufacturers' operating instructions before using any equipment.
- Make sure that you use any materials or chemicals safely, complying with statutory legislation regulating the use of substances hazardous to health. Follow advice on labels carefully before making up solutions or mixtures.

Using Equipment
- Make sure that ladders and stepladders are in good working order, and platforms have been constructed safely, to prevent injury from falling.

Dealing with Electrics
- Disconnect any electrical equipment when it is not in use, even for a short time.
- Switch off the power supply when decorating around switches or power points, and when cleaning them.
- Consider using a residual current circuit breaker to protect against electrocution.

Protecting People
- Increase the ventilation in a room to reduce the effects of dust and fumes.
- Wear a mask to minimize the amount of dust and fine particles that you inhale.
- Wear safety glasses to protect eyes from flying debris.
- Wear gloves to protect skin from injury and irritation.
- Keep all chemicals and tools away from children and out of the way of «corridors within your working area.